Facilitator or Mediator? Rethinking the Meta-Challenge of Twenty-First-Century Education and Its Foundational Presuppositions

perPhilosophy of Education Societyدو فصلنامه فلسفه تربیت2538-2802 2538-63012026-08212articleFacilitator or Mediator? Rethinking the Meta-Challenge of Twenty-First-Century Education and Its Foundational PresuppositionsRamazan Barkhordariramazanbarkhordari@gmail.com1In contemporary education, we encounter various challenges that can be transformed into problems and subsequently addressed through problem-solving processes. In contrast, there are challenges that more fundamentally shape the actions and dispositions of teachers and students. Amid these concerns, a central pedagogical question that arises in the present era is whether, within the triangle of student, teacher, and subject matter, the teacher ought to assume the role of a facilitator or a mediator. Each of these concepts carries its own underlying assumptions and presents distinct possibilities and limitations. For instance, the discourse of facilitation—largely inspired by the intellectual tradition of pragmatism—has become dominant in educational movements as the superstructure of a broader pedagogical paradigm. By contrast, the formation of the concept of mediation, with reference to the importance of culture, rests on a fundamental presupposition about human perfection and perfectibility, emphasizing the need to learn from humanity's finest achievements. A range of thinkers identified as philosophers of culture may be regarded as intellectual predecessors of this perspective. Within the presupposition of mediation—and the teacher as mediator—a form of continuity in individual experience, as well as a connection to a shared cultural heritage, is assumed. The present article seeks to examine the foundational elements of these two approaches, analyze the seemingly contradictory aspects of their coexistence, and explore how they might be coherently arranged in relation to educational aims.http://pesi.saminatech.ir/Article/53571facilitation mediation philosophy of childhood Bildung.perPhilosophy of Education Societyدو فصلنامه فلسفه تربیت2538-2802 2538-63012026-08212articleRethinking the concept of "listening to the child": from an educational act to a fundamental experience of encountering the otherParvaneh Valavip.valavi@scu.ac.ir1Zahra BalivandZa-balivand@stu.ac.ir2Associate Professor, Department of Education, Faculty of Education and Psychology, Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, Ahvaz, Iran. PhD Student of Philosophy of Education, Department of Education, Shahid Chamran University of AhvazThis article offers a philosophical rethinking of what it means to listen to the child, not as a communicative skill or an instrumental strategy for facilitating learning, but as an ethical encounter with the Other. The point of departure is the assumption that, within many educational relationships, listening is already constrained by adult expectations, intentions, and pedagogical aims. As a result, the child’s voice is often interpreted, regulated, or appropriated before it is genuinely heard. Adopting a conceptual–analytical approach and drawing on a Levinasian understanding of ethics, the article reconceives listening as an act that does not originate in the adult’s pedagogical will, but in the call of the Other—a call that places the teacher or parent in a position of ethical responsibility. From this perspective, listening to the child is understood as a response to presence and voice, rather than as a technique of guidance, control, or interpretation. this study seeks to cultivate a philosophical sensitivity toward the child—one that may be described as an attempt to listen to each child as if they were the only child in the world. Although such an orientation may initially appear merely inspirational, it holds the potential to prompt deeper reflection on educational ethics, the language of curriculum, and the meaning of shared existence within educational life.http://pesi.saminatech.ir/Article/52916child listening Other ethical responsibility educational relationshipperPhilosophy of Education Societyدو فصلنامه فلسفه تربیت2538-2802 2538-63012026-08212articleGood Listening: A Virtuous Action in Character Education Samaneh Amini Mashhadisamanehaminimashhadi@gmail.com1Drawing on Imam Ali’s saying, “May God bless whoever listens to a point of wisdom and retains it,” and guided by Qur’anic principles of selective and accountable listening (39:18; 17:36), this study conceptualizes istimāʿ e tafahhumī, understanding-oriented and ethically accountable listening as a virtuous action within character education. Listening is thus framed not as a mere technical skill, but as a relational and morally accountable practice informed by practical judgment and the aims of education. A central issue arises in talk-centered classrooms, where participation is often measured by frequency of speaking. When spoken contribution serves as the main indicator of engagement, outward signs of attentiveness such as eye contact, nodding, or silence can blur the vital boundary between genuine listening and pretending to listen. In these settings, such cues may be mistakenly interpreted as proof of understanding; over time, compliance may slip into mere pretense, with the appearance of listening replacing authentic understanding. To address this, a normative–operational framework, adapted from the Caught–Taught–Sought (CTS) model, connects virtuous listening to moral, intellectual, civic, and performance virtues. To make understanding visible and distinguish authentic listening from performative mimicry, three minimal indicators are proposed: (1) reflective pausing, (2) restating for verification, and (3) clarifying questions for shared understanding. Through an analytical–deductive approach, the study argues that centering virtuous listening in authentic dialogue transforms the classroom into a space for responsible and understanding-oriented interaction.http://pesi.saminatech.ir/Article/53502good Listening Character Education virtuous life shared understanding authentic dialogue.perPhilosophy of Education Societyدو فصلنامه فلسفه تربیت2538-2802 2538-63012026-08212articleInvestigating the effect of implementing a philosophy for children program on improving preschool children's questioning (case study of Kerman city)Mohadeseh Borhani Nejadmohadese_borhani@cfu.ac.ir1masoumeh ramezani finiramezani.masoumeh@cfu.ac.ir2Assistant Professor, Department of Educational Sciences, Farhangian UniversityObjective: The purpose of this study is Investigating the effect of the Philosophy for Children (P4C) program on the quantity and quality of preschool children’s questions. The researchers aim to determine whether the P4C program can positively influence children’s questioning skills both quantitatively and qualitatively. Two specific questions are addressed: <ol> <li>Does the P4C program increase the number of questions posed by preschool children?</li> <li>Does the implementation of the P4C program improve the level and quality of preschool children’s questions?</li> </ol> Sampling: To conduct this research, approximately 80 preschool children were selected through convenience sampling. Over a two-month academic term, they participated in the P4C program across 20 sessions. Methodology: A mixed-method approach combining quasi-experimental and analytical methods was employed. Specifically, a one-group pretest-posttest quasi-experimental design was used. A 20-week P4C curriculum was developed, with activities conducted once a week for one hour. The children’s questioning skills were assessed both before and after the program, focusing on the quantity and level of their questions. Results: The findings revealed that the implementation of the P4C program led to significant changes in the type and quality of the children’s questions. There was a notable improvement in their questioning skills, characterized by an increase in higher-level questions (level C, deeper questions) and a decrease in lower-level questions (levels A and B, more superficial questions). According to the study, the P4C program effectively enhanced questioning skills among preschool children, elevating the level of their inquiries.http://pesi.saminatech.ir/Article/52761Questioning Philosophy for Children (P4C) Questioning Levels Preschool EducationperPhilosophy of Education Societyدو فصلنامه فلسفه تربیت2538-2802 2538-63012026-08212articleA Critical-Analytical Examination of the Meaning, Conceptual Coherence, and Feasibility of Teaching Philosophy to Children, with a Focus on the P4C and PwC Approaches.Ahmad Haghihaghi.a@lu.ac.ir1Employing a conceptual-analytical approach, this study investigates the semantic challenges and conceptual coherence of teaching philosophy to children. It primarily focuses on Matthew Lipman's program (P4C), analyzing the discrepancies between its title, declared objectives, and actual practices. The paper seeks to answer whether the program's activities can be considered "philosophy" in its truest sense and to what extent the phrase "philosophy for children" accurately reflects its essence. <div class=""> </div> The research methodology is conceptual analysis, wherein the author critically compares perspectives from philosophers like Lipman, Bernof, and Kitchener, and psychologists such as Guilford and Torrance, to elucidate the key concepts of "philosophy," "critical thinking," "creative thinking," and "caring thinking." This analysis aims to clarify the process-oriented and outcome-oriented dimensions of philosophy and align them with the program's implemented content. <div class=""> </div> The findings reveal that the core challenge lies in defining philosophy as both a process of inquiry and its resultant outcomes. Consequently, while Lipman's program equips learners with essential tools for fostering philosophical thought (e.g., critical and creative thinking, reasoning skills), the "community of inquiry" activities do not necessarily culminate in producing reasoned philosophical theories about abstract and universal matters. Furthermore, "caring thinking" functions less as a third mode of thought alongside critical and creative thinking, and more as a motivational prerequisite for engaging in discussion.http://pesi.saminatech.ir/Article/52936Philosophy for Children Philosophical Thinking Creative Thinking Critical ThinkingperPhilosophy of Education Societyدو فصلنامه فلسفه تربیت2538-2802 2538-63012026-08212articleThe Political Economy of Attention in the Age of Technocapitalism: Reconsidering Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) through Bernard Stiegler's PhilosophyAli Vahdati Daneshmandalivahdati@ut.ac.ir1Mohammad َAmiriamiri1379mohammad@gmail.com2Department of Education, Faculty of Governance, Shahed university, Tehran, IranThe proliferation of digital technologies and the emergence of the political economy of attention have transformed attention from a psychological phenomenon into a philosophical, educational, and political concern. This article seeks to explain the contemporary crisis of attention in the age of digital capitalism—a condition that is often interpreted within psychological and biological frameworks as Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD/ADHD)—through the theoretical perspective of Bernard Stiegler. It examines Stiegler's philosophy as a framework for understanding the relationship between technology, education, and technologically mediated processes of individuation. Employing conceptual analysis and documentary research, the study reconstructs and analyzes the central concepts of Stiegler's thought, including pharmakon, attention, care, grammatisation, transindividuation, and proletarianization, and explores their educational implications. The findings suggest that, for Stiegler, technology functions as a pharmakon, simultaneously possessing both therapeutic and destructive potentials. Under the dominance of platform capitalism and the political economy of attention, however, its destructive dimension has prevailed through the industrial capture of attention, the erosion of intergenerational transmission, the degradation of reflective and critical capacities, and ultimately the emergence of cognitive proletarianization. Consequently, educational institutions have increasingly lost their fundamental role in cultivating deep attention, transmitting cultural heritage, and fostering processes of individuation. In response, the article argues that activating the therapeutic potential of the pharmakon requires reconstructing institutions of care, strengthening nootechnics, redesigning educational policies, and redirecting digital technologies toward the cultivation of knowledge, deep attention, and collective responsibility.http://pesi.saminatech.ir/Article/53884Bernard Stiegler attention pharmakon digital capitalism cognitive proletarianization educationperPhilosophy of Education Societyدو فصلنامه فلسفه تربیت2538-2802 2538-63012026-08212articleFrom the Minimal State to the Market-Oriented School: A Critical Analysis of the Relationship between the Political System and School Education in Hayekian NeoliberalismAlireza Heidarydr.alireza1391@gmail.com1masomeh matormasoumehmatoor@cfu.ac.ir2mohamad abasim.abbasi93@iau-arak.ac.ir3mahdi rezaeimh.rezaei@cfu.ac.ir4Assistant Professor, Department of Islamic Studies, Farhangian University, P.O. Box 14665-889, Tehran, Iran (Corresponding Author), a.heydari@cfu.ac.irAssistant Professor, Department of Elementary Education, Farhangian University, P.O. Box 889-14665, Tehran, Iran.Ph.D. Graduate in Philosophy of Education, Islamic Azad University, Arak, Iran.Assistant Professor, Department of Elementary Education, Farhangian University, P.O. Box 14665-889, Tehran, Iran. mh.rezaei@cfu.ac.ir The relationship between the political system and the school education system is one of the fundamental issues in the philosophy of education that has increased in recent decades, along with the global spread and influence of neoliberalism. In the meantime, Hayek's ideas, due to their roots in epistemological, anthropological, political and economic philosophy, have played an important role in redefining the state, the market and education. However, his independent works in the field of education have been less systematically examined. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to explain the relationship between the political system and the school education system from the perspective of neoliberalism using educational ideas and analyzing its consequences, which was done with conceptual understanding and philosophical inference. The research information sources included Hayek's original works as well as analytical and critical sources related to neoliberalism, philosophy of education, educational policy-making and political economy, which were selected as samples by purposive sampling from 6 Hayek's sources, 4 sources from commentators and 6 sources of critics. Data were collected through documentary study, systematic note-taking, and source analysis and analyzed based on criteria of scientific validity, relevance to the research problem, and capacity to infer educational implications. The findings showed that Hayek's thought, emphasizing the limitation of human rationality, spontaneous order and limited government, leads to the strengthening of market mechanisms, competition, freedom of choice and reducing government intervention in the organization of education. As a result, the school is shifting from a public and http://pesi.saminatech.ir/Article/54513Friedrich August von Hayek Neoliberalism Minimal State Market-Oriented Schooling Critical Analysis Political System School Education perPhilosophy of Education Societyدو فصلنامه فلسفه تربیت2538-2802 2538-63012026-08212articleProblematizing the Absence of "the Experience of Hardship and Deprivation" in the Childhood of (Most) Iranian Children TodayMorad Yari Dehnavimyaridehnavi@gmail.com1Over the past century, as Iranian society has undergone a transition from its traditional foundations toward a (semi-)modern condition, the experience of childhood in Iran appears to have been subject to profound and multifaceted transformations. Among the most significant of these shifts is the gradual attenuation—and in many cases, the deliberate elimination—of "the experience of hardship and deprivation" from children's lives. The parental generation—tempered, as it were, in the crucible of that earlier childhood—now acts from a well-intentioned desire to shield their offspring from the very hardships that shaped them. The educational crisis, however, emerges precisely at the point where such an approach to child-rearing comes to be regarded not merely as understandable, but as a "desirable educational ideal." Following the spirit of a Foucauldian inquiry, one might pose the following question: Does the systematic effort to eradicate experiences of deprivation and hardship from childhood truly constitute a "desirable" end in the education of future generations?  The research aims to challenge the taken-for-granted desirability of this prevailing approach to child-rearing in contemporary Iranian society, reframing it not as an educational value or ideal, but rather as an "educational challenge and problem" in need of critical examination. To this end, the study employs Huberman’s method of "transcendental and positive critique" to interrogate the "false consciousness" that underlies and legitimizes the systematic effort to eliminate experiences of hardship and resilience-building from the lives of today's children.http://pesi.saminatech.ir/Article/53117Childhood Experience of Hardship and Suffering and deprivation Overindulgence Problematization False Consciousness Foucault HabermasperPhilosophy of Education Societyدو فصلنامه فلسفه تربیت2538-2802 2538-63012026-08212articlePeace Education for Children: A Meta-synthesis of Principles and a Comparative Study of Islamic TeachingsTahere Hayatientezar.hayati.63@gmail.com1Fateme Movahedi Parsaf.movahedi8@cfu.ac.ir2Assistant Professor, Department of Educational Sciences, Farhangian University, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box 1889-16665.In an era defined by violence and social fragmentation, peace education for children has become a strategic necessity for human survival and transcendence. This study analyzes the nature, necessities, and objectives of peace education through a meta-synthesis of research from the past decade (2015–2025), proposing a comparative model based on Islamic teachings. Methodologically, this applied research adopts a descriptive-analytical meta-synthesis approach. Following a systematic screening of relevant scientific literature, findings were categorized and compared with Islamic educational principles using an interpretive framework. The results indicate a conceptual shift from "negative peace" (absence of war) to "positive peace" (justice, tranquility, and ethical living). While global models prioritize social contracts and global citizenship, the Islamic approach enhances the ontological depth of peace by introducing spiritual and theocentric dimensions. In this perspective, peace is anchored in "innate dignity," "belief in the hereafter," and "Hayat-e Tayyiba" (the Pure Life), fostering a profound internal enforcement mechanism. Optimal peace education integrates modern conflict resolution skills with Islamic epistemological foundations. This "Transcendent Peace" model aims to nurture "righteous and reformative" individuals, ensuring not only physical security but also psychological well-being and eternal salvation. Achieving this vision requires a fundamental revision of hidden and overt curricula and a shift toward transformative pedagogy.http://pesi.saminatech.ir/Article/53200Peace education children metasynthesis Islamic education positive peace healthy lifeperPhilosophy of Education Societyدو فصلنامه فلسفه تربیت2538-2802 2538-63012026-08212articleThe Origins of Modern Childhood Education in Iran regarding the Role of FranceBehnoush Karimib_karimi@atu.ac.ir1Saeed AzadmaneshAzadmanesh263@yahoo.com2Allameh Tabataba'i UniversityStudying the historical background of contemporary education in Iran indicates that the origins of modern childhood education can be traced to the Qajar period. From the late Qajar era onward, calls for a new model of education grew stronger, and Iran’s modern educational system gradually took shape under the influence of multiple factors. Accordingly, the present study seeks to clarify the origins of childhood education by examining the factors that contributed to the emergence of modern education, with particular emphasis on the role of France. Using a qualitative approach and a research synthesis method, the study analyzes and integrates the research findings in this field. Following a systematic search of accessible studies in academic databases, 39 relevant studies were selected for inclusion. The analysis identified the main factors facilitating the development of modern education and organized them into two categories: France-related factors and factors unrelated to France. France-related factors including “Iranian travelers’ and merchants’ familiarity with French educational institutions”, “sending students to France”, “the translation and authorship of educational texts inspired by French models”, “the influence of the press”, “the establishment of schools by missionaries”, and “the employment of French teachers”. Non-France-related factors including “Iran’s defeat by Russia”, “the educational shortcomings of traditional schools (maktabkhāneh)”, “the efforts of Iranian intellectuals”, “the Constitutional Revolution”, and “the supportive role of clerics and mosques.” <div id="77FBC3DD_F561_BA00_F13D_9BC888C32C9C"> </div>http://pesi.saminatech.ir/Article/52881childhood modern education Qajar Iran France tradition and modernityperPhilosophy of Education Societyدو فصلنامه فلسفه تربیت2538-2802 2538-63012026-08212articleThe Concept of the Educated man in the Transition from Modernity to Postmodernity: An Inquiry, Comparison, and Critical Evaluation"ali sohbatloalisohbatlo@gmail.com1TThe aim of this research is to investigate the concept of the cultivated human during the transition from modernity to postmodernity, employing an approach of inquiry, comparison, and critical evaluation. Foucault's genealogical method has been used to answer the research questions. The findings indicate that the concept of the cultivated human is defined based on the assumptions of each era, and the characteristics and indicators of such an individual are influenced by the social, political, and cultural transformations of that period. The research outcome suggests that, from Foucault's genealogical perspective, the evolution of the concept of the cultivated human is neither continuous nor uniform; rather, it undergoes justifiable changes in each era. Given the diverse interpretations of the educational telos of humanity and the lack of complete consensus among postmodern philosophers, an image of the cultivated human emerges that lacks fixed characteristics and possesses greater complexity and ambiguity. Modern philosophers, due to a greater alignment in educational aims, have presented a clearer and more distinct picture. The overall conclusion states that the cultivated human is defined and shaped by the prevailing social, political, and educational discourses and is subject to the constraints and conditions of their respective times. Despite fundamental differences in definition and the means to achieve it, both eras consider humans as active beings, agents capable of influencing the world. Both seek to cultivate an individual who is not merely passive but can, by relying on their capabilities, take steps towards shaping their life and society.http://pesi.saminatech.ir/Article/52829 Educated man Modernity Postmodernity Foucault GeneologyperPhilosophy of Education Societyدو فصلنامه فلسفه تربیت2538-2802 2538-63012026-08212articleExploring the Concept of the Primary School Student in Iran’s Educational SystemZahra Zareizahra.zareiii2210@gmail.com1Fariba KhoshbakhtKhoshbakht@shirazu.ac.ir2mahbobeh alborzimalborzi@shirazu.ac.ir3Babak Shamshiribshamshiri@rose.shirazu.ac.ir4Assosiate Prof. of the Dept. of Foundations of Education. Shiraz Universit .Shiraz, Iran. Professor, Department of Primary and Preschool Education, Shiraz UniversityProfessor, Department of Primary and Preschool Education, Shiraz University.Primary school students are among the most impressionable actors in the educational system, as this stage represents children’s entry into cognitive, emotional, and value-based domains and the beginning of formal socialization. Understanding the characteristics that define the concept of the primary school student is crucial for evaluating educational performance. This study explored how this concept is constructed within Iran’s educational system. Method: Using a qualitative, phenomenological approach, this emergent study analyzed Persian-language textbooks for grades four to six and conducted semi-structured interviews with five teachers and six students. Participants were selected purposively until data saturation was reached. Data were examined through descriptive–interpretive analysis and inductive content analysis. Findings: Three major components shape the concept of the primary school student: <ol style="text-align: left;" data-start="1084" data-end="1459"> <li data-start="1084" data-end="1206"> The student’s image within the education system, including personal traits, social roles, activities, and challenges; </li> <li data-start="1207" data-end="1286"> The teacher’s influence, covering educational and developmental functions; </li> <li data-start="1287" data-end="1459"> The educational system’s role, encompassing its structural features and functional limitations. These components and their elements are detailed in the main article. </li> </ol> Findings suggest that Iran’s educational system mainly emphasizes students’ cognitive skills and conformity, while emotional, social, and cultural dimensions receive less focus. Despite partial efforts to address these areas in textbooks and teaching, curriculum design and implementation still limit holistic development. The gap between educational policy ideals and students’ real experiences highlights the need to redefine policies, strengthen teachers’ developmental roles, and broaden the conceptualization of students within the system.http://pesi.saminatech.ir/Article/51860Primary school student primary education teacher Iranian educational system student characteristics.perPhilosophy of Education Societyدو فصلنامه فلسفه تربیت2538-2802 2538-63012026-08212articleRetuning Education: Bildung and Exemplarity Beyond the Logic of ProgressMostafa Moradim.moradi484@gmail.com1The argument of the present book is a fairly simple one. It argues first that the primary principle of education concerns not where we are going but how to get started. Second, it argues that education is something we undertake and that we have in common. The first entails that rather than think of edu cation primarily from the vantage point of what we want to achieve or what we want education to deliver, we think it from the vantage point of begin ning. Rather than a progressive movement from A to B, from ignorant to knowledgeable, from imperfection to perfection, I wish to argue we should focus on how to get started. How to create moments of attention and interest towards something of common concern. This cannot be done in isolation, and hence it is a collective endeavour, even if sometimes it requires solitude. It concerns the directing of a becoming human’s gaze towards some aspect of the world we deem to be important enough to want to share it with the new comers of this world, or with those who are new to the subject matter at hand. In this sense, education is always about the relation we are able to establish between the educator, the educand, and the world, and education only ever happens in this constellation. http://pesi.saminatech.ir/Article/54242Bildung Education Exemplarity Korsgaard